Correctional Sex Offender Programs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Correctional Sex Offender Programs - Assignment Example Although the Washington Department of Correction’s program is not the first of its kind, it is the first of its kind that has exhibited such a high level of success and has carefully laid out the methods by which such successful results have been obtained. As such, it will be the purpose of this brief analysis to analyze the Washington Department of Correction’s unique program in order to draw inference on the many ways in which offenders are conditioned and taught to release the negative risk factors that initially encouraged them to commit crime it the first place. Additionally, inference will be drawn based on whether or not the program should be implemented in other prison communities around the United States (McAlinden, 2007). It is interesting to note that the Washington Department of Correction’s program (also known as the Monroe Program) emphasizes a system of acknowledgement and action that is not dissimilar from that of patently successful programs such as AA (Alcoholics Anonymous) and others (Leon, 2011). As a function of this, the first steps that are taken revolve around impressing upon the participating individual that they are responsible for their actions (Ward, 2003). Consequently, the program focuses on teaching the offenders to understand and target those patterns that initially spurred them to criminal behavior. Once this information has been learned and accepted (again acceptance of responsibility and a commitment to work to learn attitudes, thinking skills, behaviors that can assist this practice is a fundamental concept of this re-orientation) the program then moves on to the familiar ground that many rehabilitation programs cover; that of teaching new trades/crafts/or skills to the inmate (Osborn, 2007). Furthermore, the Monroe Program additionally offers group therapy sessions that are concentric around the topics of responsibility, patterns that work to regulate the behavior, relapse prevention, community re-integr ation approaches, as well as skills and workforce training (Briggs, 2006). Likewise, with many offender rehabilitation programs, the Monroe Program does not offer its treatments wholesale to sex offenders (Marshall, 2006). There are a list of criterion that must be met prior to the course being offered. These include: the offender must have been convicted of a sex offense for his/her current or previous term of incarceration, the offender must agree to monitor themselves and their environment to detect changes indicating that their risk to reoffend is increasing, the offender must agree to work to develop the skills necessary to intervene, manager, and reduce risky behavior, and the offender must volunteer of their own free will under the belief that the program can work to ameliorate their risk as it relates to committing crimes of a sexual nature (MacKenzie, 2006). However, the results of the program speak for themselves. Whereas many prison rehabilitation programs have low re-off ense rates, currently and past literature on the issue has often indicated that sexual offenders are somehow beyond reclamation (Noles, 2008). This is however not what the results of Washington Department of Corrections Monroe Program exhibits. According to the Washington Depart

The Comparison of Transition from Dictatorship to Democracy in Brazil Essay

The Comparison of Transition from Dictatorship to Democracy in Brazil (1964) and Argentina (1976) - Essay Example The transition to democracy in Brazil was viewed as a form of liberalization as it was preoccupied with the process of legitimacy. The process of democracy was able to achieve various goals within the civil society. These achievements were later referred to as Brazilian miracle with the attainment of sustained economic growth and development (Stepan, 36) Unlike the Brazilian military era, the Argentine military era did not last for a long period as it collapsed as a result of various forms of divisions and incompetence. In this case the promise of liberation by the military regime failed to take off or deliver any tangible results. Major divisions were experienced in its ranks due to a weak power confidence leading to its down fall. The unity of the military was also in question and therefore was considered as a contributing factor to this failure in terms of transition from dictatorship to democratic type of governance (Pion-Berlin,

Individual Learner Difference In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay

Individual Learner Difference In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay SLA (Second language acquisition) is a process through which an individual learns a second language as an additional language after having learned a native language already. SLA involves broad research and is considered a branch of applied linguistics. The concept is also related to education, neuroscience sociolinguistics, and psychology. Learning a second language is not an easy task, this is a practice that involves commitment, study, dedication, patient as well as time in order to develop. People who learn a second language do not do it because is just a compulsory subject at school, but because they feel encouraged to learn it , considering factors such us, communication with foreigners, academic studies and better opportunities to find a good job. Research has shown that there are differences among second language learners that significantly affect language learning success. As a result, the study of individual differences (IDs) especially in language learning motivation and language aptitude has been attributed to researches on L2 studies dating back to the 1960s. Motivation is what guides people to accomplish and be successful in all areas of life. Regarding the classroom environment, this term is the basis of how enthusiastic or unwilling students are to learn and the guidance force to maintain the extensive and sometimes tiresome learning process. Both the degree of motivation and educational success frequently seem to go hand in hand, which can be clearly observed throughout the teaching practice. This essay seeks to explore and discuss in detail one individual learner difference in second language acquisition, which is motivation. Apart from defining the term, regarding different authors, the essay will also include the analysis of the various types of motivation, as well as, the role motivation plays in second language classrooms. And finally, ways of fostering motivation will be proposed. The term Motivation in SLA One of the individual learner differences in SLA is motivation, which is a term difficult to define, since its meaning could depend on the individuals and their cultures. DÃ ¶rnyei (2002: 1) says that motivation is best seen as a broad umbrella term that covers a variety of meanings, but simultaneously this author also describes motivation as the factor in charge of determining why individuals decide to carry out an action, the amount of effort people invest in the tasks as well as the rate of perseverance people put when completing various activities. Alike DÃ ¶rnyei, Passer and Smith (2004: 327) perceive motivation as a process that influences the direction, persistence and vigour of goal-directed behaviour. According to Gardner (1985), motivation is what makes people to act towards a given situation. Taking into consideration all these definitions which state what the term of motivation is, it can be deduced that the concept refer to some type of energy that guides individuals t o undertake a task in their lives. The motivated language learner Lightbown and Spada (2002) point out that motivation is a factor that plays an important role in language learning success. In the context of language learning is what pushes a pupil to gain knowledge of the English language. The importance of motivation in relation to achieving the goals of learning English as a Second Language according to Naiman et al, (1978) is that it gives the learner the ability to tolerate ambiguity; a need for achievement; a positive orientation towards the task; high aspirations; ego involvement; perseverance and goal orientation. Therefore, a motivated language student is a person who has positive attitudes towards the target language. These attitudes are shown when the second language learner makes efforts to acquire the language and has a consistent desire of studying and discovering new and additional material. Moreover, looking for opportunities and ways where he or she will be able to put in practice the target language. An additional way of defining a motivated learner is when learning the second language is a comfortable situation for the apprentice, taking pleasure in the tasks involved. Furthermore, a pupil that experience a high level of motivation will doubtless feel pleased about learning the language. Researchers have arisen several explanations of what encourages learners to study a foreign language; they have found that motivational factors are fundamental at the time of speaking about second language success. Types of motivation As it was mentioned before, there are diverse meanings for motivation in SLA, regardless of the words they basically refer to the same notion. Also, there are different factors which somewhat vary depending on the authors points of view. I will refer in this essay to the different types of motivation, taking into consideration different authors. Extrinsic and Intrinsic motivation: The words extrinsic and intrinsic are to some extent complicated, given that both terms do not seem to have a clear definition in the field of second language acquisition. Passer and Smith (2004) cite extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, even though Noels (2002) uses the terms extrinsic and intrinsic orientations. For these authors, Passer and Smith and Noel, extrinsic signifies that people carry out an action to accomplish an external goal or evade punishment, while by intrinsic motivation the authors altogether mean that students do activities, due to the satisfaction they get from the tasks themselves. Activities that motivate students intrinsically are likened to enjoyable activities, fun, or things that students do out of their own choice. Some of the conducted studies assert that intrinsically motivating activities lead to improved learning by the students. The difference between Passer Smith (2004) and Noels (2002) is just the notion motivation and orientations, in view of the fact that both terms involved different approaches of motivation. The initial term proposes that the motivation itself comes from outside or within; while the term orientation suggests that it is rather the different triggers of motivation that comes from outside or within. Although, Glasser (1996) does not use the terms intrinsic and extrinsic, he provides a third route to see where motivation comes from. He states that motivation is produced trying to satisfied the essential desires which all human beings own. For instance, the need of entertainment. He points out that even if a person is influenced by the environment, all motivation still comes from inside the individual, because it is he or she who really choose whether or not and how to carry out an activity. Though I concur with Glasser that just the individuals are the ones who make their own decisions, I think that what motivates people, are factors which can be both external and internal. Alternatively, Garden and Lambet (1972) coined the following terms to classify motivation. Integrative Motivation Garden and Lambet (1972) describe this term as the desire that the learners have to familiarize themselves with the culture of the ethnic group that speaks the language they intend to learn. Gardner (2002) himself perceives Integrativeness as one of the factors that conduct to motivation for second language learning, and by this he suggests that whether learners have the hope to come nearer the L2 community they will have real desire in learning and studying the second language. Besides, the term also refers to the degree at which the learner desires to understand the target community. Essentially, integrative motivation refers to a learners desire to expand their association with the community that they are targeting. Saville Troike, (2005) affirm that the main triggers of this type of motivation are emotions or affective factors. For instance, a Chilean boy who come to live in London for a time, meet an English girl and fall in love with her. He will have the desire and motivation to learn English in order to communicate with his girlfriend and integrate into the new culture and become part of the community. As Chile is mainly a monocultural society, chances to utilize the second language in daily conversations are fairly limited. Therefore, learners do not feel motivated to learn the second language to become part of the community, since they just need their first language to interact. It can be discussed that integrative motivation is an intrinsic factor, because it implies that learning a second language is more a final aim itself rather than a mean to accomplish a final goal, due to the authentic desire on the learning tasks (Noels (2002). Instrumental Motivation: One more term that Gardner and Lambert made up is instrumental motivation which Lightbown Spada (2002: 56) introduce as language learning for more immediate or practical goals. Very similar to integrative motivation, instrumental motivation also sees language learning as an instrument to accomplish a goal rather than the satisfaction in the action itself. However, what distinguishes both terms is the final aim, which in integrative motivation is the interaction in the L2 community while in instrumental motivation the ultimate goal is more practical, for instance, obtaining a better job, career developmental or passing exams. For most Chilean learners of English instrumental motivation is the key element at the time to learn English as a second language. For Lightbown Spada (2002) both types of motivation are important , they say that whether the students feel the necessity to interact in the second language in various social situations or to accomplish academic and professional aspirations, the communicative value of the foreign language will be perceived and therefore, they will feel encouraged to get proficiency in the language. I agree with the authors that both types of motivation are important to acquire a second language, However for Chilean people integrative motivation is far to be seen as a reason to study the second language due to the fact that Chile , as I mentioned earlier, is a monocultural and monolingual society. Classroom Learning Motivation vs. Language Learning Motivation When considering second language acquisition and motivation, it is important to put two motivational constructs into consideration. Research has shown that there are two categories of motivation that should be put into account when discussing SLA. This mainly deals with the difference that exists between classroom learning motivation and language learning motivation. Language learning motivation refers to the desire to learn a second language. Language learning motivation includes evaluated second language acquisition, socio-educational representation (Gardner, 1985), the preparedness to converse model (Clement, Dornyei, MacIntyre Noels, 1998) among others. It is the universal type of motivation that applies to any context of learning a language. The universal attributes of the learner relate to the need to learn the language. Clements (1980) social context model, Gardners (1985) SLA social-education model among others, agree that the motivation or desire to learn a second language is a characteristic that has considerable effects on the individual although they are different when it comes to assessment, correlates and antecedents. The other type of motivation is the learning motivation in a classroom. According to Heckhausen and Kuhl (1985), classroom-learning motivation is the general educational psychology as described by Dornyeis model of post-actional, actional, and pre-actional motivation model. Although it is seen to be an important part to motivation as a whole, the SLA socio-educational model by Gardner, (1985), characterizes it. The main focus is the persons view on the mission to be achieved and to a large extent, it is state oriented. This means that a number of issues that are related to the language class will affect the individuals perception. As a result, the atmosphere in the class, the teacher, the contents of the course, facilities and materials combined with the students personal attributes will affect the persons motivation when it comes to classroom learning. It is hard to differentiate between the two categories of motivation because they control the individual at any particular time. Therefore, it is important to consider both classes of motivation operative. Just as hard as it is to define motivation, it is equally difficult to give an explanation to the meaning of learning a second language. According to Gardner, the motivational strength can only be estimated from questionnaires based on an individuals attitude and is considered to be a hidden psychometric characteristic. Other educational practices have applied the use of indicators that have been observed from individuals behavior in response to a given task. This depends on the persons selection of tasks, which is determined by the level of difficulty, the persistency of the learner to tackle the problem at hand, the extent at which an individual participates in a group or class activities, the span of attention and focus, or the qualitative information available on spoken reports of self-regulation and self-monitoring. The new research program by Crookes and Schmidt (1991) includes the advancements made in the universal educational, which has narrowed to the field of language learning motivation. This directs its focus on individuals, the approaches that the learner might implement in the learning process, the learning contexts, and the observable conduct of class members. Following the inception of the new outline, the areas of interest have shifted to the learner as an individual. In Covingtons self-worthy theory (1998), the importance of the learners ideas were emphasized, their own beliefs, the strategy they use, and the level of their desire to deal with the task at hand. The self- efficacy concept by Bandura (1997) is a very important related characteristic which assesses the level at which learners gauge their potential and their own management. Individuals who have this ability come up with an efficient motivational thinking strategy and are able to reduce the risk of failure and increase t heir chances of success while depending less on outside obligatory measures and strategies. Motivation: Individual Learner Difference in Chilean Culture Clement and Noels (1996) indicate that the cultural settings present different language learning and individual learner differences. In the Chilean cultural setting, the motivation to learn the English language offer some challenges to the learners due to most of the students who attend Chilean public schools are in social risk. In addition, many of the learners may be discouraged to put personal effort in learning the language because of the fact that they may not find the language useful outside the educational setting. Others may be of the opinion that their chances of travelling to a country where English is spoken as a native language are rather minimal. Furthermore, challenges that come with teaching a class that has many students may affect the effectiveness of the teachers and the quality of the lesson. This together with the little interest towards learning the English language may influence negatively the motivation to teach as well as the motivation to learn. Fostering Motivation The best ways to foster motivation is to create a good environment, which is beneficial for second language learning. This can be done by reducing the number of students per class to ensure that the instruction given by the English teachers is of good quality. The teachers should also come up with plans that apply to both slow learners and fast learners so as to ensure that those who do not grasp quickly are not left far behind because this may demotivate them to continue learning. The schools may consider initiating exchange programs with schools where English is the native language. This would give students the feeling that studying English is not an effort in vain but a step in the right direction since it would help them in securing jobs and touring other parts of the world. Moreover, teachers should come up with a timetable that gives us enough time to prepare for our classes by getting the necessary materials as well as reflecting on the success of the program. This would help us in coming up with a better plan to teach hence improving our teaching methodology. It would also help teachers find ways of motivating their own students. With the relevant authorities ensuring that, schools are well equipped to teach English as a second language, students will be motivated to learn and teachers will be motivated to teach. Conclusion The above discussion has provided an analysis of motivation as an individual learner difference. There have been numerous research studies exploring individual learner differences, which have indicated that the main reason why many L2 students fail while others succeed effortlessly is the presence of different student characteristics such as language aptitude, motivation, or personality traits. The motivation of the student is very important in the learning process and is regarded as the key factor that contributes to the success of SLA. Research has revealed that intrinsic motivation is more successful than external or extrinsic motivation over the long term. Some students learning rate is higher as compared to others. Some learners are able to grasp quickly and they go on to the level of reaching near-native competence while slow learners experience difficulties in the early stages of the learning process. Recently conducted research has shown that this disparity is caused by the p articular strategy adopted by the learner, motivation, anxiety, personality, as well as societal and social influences. Research has clearly shown that the intensity of the students motivation to its highest level, including the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components are the most important aspects towards success in SLA. Since the integrative motive incorporates the aspect of being open to cultural identification as part of the process, it tries to imply that integration may be more connected to achieving highest level of achievement as compared to other types of motivation that do not have this component. Classroom learning motivation seems to be a system that encourages individuals to acquire specific language elements but for the students to be masters of the language, more is needed. In my opinion, the integrative motivation provides the students with a better platform for SLA. A teachers role in the process of learning a second language is rather complicated but very important. It surpasses the provision of reward since the whole experience is dependent on the self-efficacy of the student. The teachers role entails providing challenging yet supportive environment to allow the students to learn and explore their potential. The teachers are also supposed to help their students to develop their own motivational thinking by discovering their original orientation. The most challenging aspect in all of this is trying to avoid anything that may de-motivate the students. Although it is very much possible to imagine other forms of motivation, the type of motivation does not matter very much. The difference that emerges between instrumental and integrative motivation, or between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation does very little in helping us to understand the role that motivation plays in second language acquisition.

Outsourcing in Intercollegiate Athletics Essay -- Sports, Athletes, FB

Division I intercollegiate athletic departments, especially those that are home to Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) teams, increasingly resemble front offices of professional sport organizations in regard to their mission and business operations. With huge operating budgets, state-of-the-art facilities, world-class athletes, and multinational corporate sponsors, these sport businesses strive to produce winning teams and profitable events every season. The outsourcing of marketing operations and rights is common practice in American college athletics today. According to Li and Burden (2002), more than one half of all NCAA Division I-A athletic programs have outsourced some or all of their marketing operations and rights to a growing number of nationally prominent outsourcing agencies. Among the operations commonly outsourced are the production of radio game broadcasts, production of radio call-in shows, coaches' television shows, sales of media and venue advertising, sales of "official sponsorship" rights to corporations, and production and management of Internet websites, etc. (Li & Burden, 2002). Outsourcing simply means acquiring services from an external organization instead of using internal resources (Butler, 2000). By using outsourced resources, organizations can gain a competitive advantage by utilizing contingent staff to accomplish strategic goals without incurring the fixed overhead. By focusing on the leading edge and highly specialized skill sets, outsourcing providers can often offer higher quality services, or at a lower price than the client organization. Typical reasons for outsourcing go beyond simple contingent staffing. Outsourcing providers are able to maintain economies of scale with regard to specialization (... ... bring the anticipated benefits, and in some instances can be a risky proposition (Chin, 2003). Villcocks and Lacity (1998) stated that among the possible disadvantages are the potential loss of control over critical functions such as timeliness and quality of service, difficulty in monitoring vendor performance, difficulty in explaining the business needs to vendors, the potential for loss of company secrets as well as intellectual property, and the high cost of outsourcing contracts. Schools also risk developing a dependency on outside agencies, lowering employee morale, loss of development skills for employees, and having to face the prospect of managing relationships that go wrong (Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000; Hayes, 2001). By outsourcing, not only do schools lose some of the personal touch in servicing their employees but their clients as well (Rombel, 2002).

Kant and Socrates

Morality is generally defined as the rightness or wrongness of an action or conduct based on an agreed standard or measure of ethical norms. This argues a society where there is no dissenting voice, which in reality is not true. Cultural subjectivism promotes tolerance, but not for all, as fundamentalist thought excludes any deviation from their prescribed moral values (Jowett, 2000). Society, on the other hand, is a group of individuals that share a common system of beliefs, intent and thought. Moral standards are required so that a stable society may exist; however, the dilemma in ethics theory is how the morality within a society is formed (Vlastos, 1991). Morality and society, apparently, is in a state of flux while ethics theorists attempt to come up with an adequate ethical formula to qualify what is right and wrong based on all cultural, social, political and religious realities.The notion of morality is often taken from a cultural context yet this presumes that societies are likewise always right in their judgments, so to disagree with society is morally wrong (Nikolaos, 2005). Among the most noted for their philosophical studies regarding morality and ethics are Socrates and Immanuel Kant. Both point out that the definition of what is evil depends on culture and experience and motivations of the individual and society. Their definition of morality discusses not only the concept itself but also its implications to man’s existence (â€Å"Kant's Moral Philosophy†, 2007). Thus, understanding what is moral is not to be considered as an intellectual discourse alone but is an endeavor to understand better the world.SocratesSocrates has provided great food of thought in his studies for what he knew but more importantly because of his treatise and understanding of what he does not know. Socrates did not believe in the need to explain his actions or thoughts and instead questioned others’ exhaustively. Socrates’ regard for Sparta, his association with the Thirty Tyrants and his own personal philosophical stance was used by his enemies for the accusation of treason against the state (Vlastos, 1991). At the time of the trial, which led to his subsequent death by hemlock, there was not any element in Greek society that would represent modern day district attorney offices.At the same time jury selection also did not have the criteria that is implemented today and often represents the political dominants of the time. Civil cases were brought to trial by private individuals who often also acted as the prosecution. Thus, there was no way to determine whether there was probable cause as to accusations. There is also a presumption of guilt rather than that of innocence. In Plato’s recollections of the trial, he points out that the prosecution, the restored democrats, deliberately made assumptions contextually of Socrates’ teachings and philosophies (Jowett, 2000).Plato also recognizes that Socrates defense was one that seemed to have ultimately given the jury the behest to find him guilty. His defense did not actually defend his actions but rather questioned the institution by which he was being tried in. Though in hindsight it is obvious that he held Athens in high regard, his philosophical speeches during his lifetime were sufficiently vague that his detractors easily could manipulate to appear the opposite (Nikolaos, 2005).Socrates on MoralityUnlike traditional Sophistic views on the purpose of life which focused on public life or works, Socrates viewed the moral excellence of the soul or virtue as paramount. He considered morality as not just limited to internal aspects or characteristics of an individual but extended its definition into the public life of the individual. One of the key virtues according to Socrates is knowledge. Socrates proposed that rhetorical studies should consider morality practically rather than for the purpose of public service alone.According to Socrates, the lack of knowledge leads to the absence of virtue. Following this viewpoint, understanding what is moral is critical in understanding virtue which in turn is important to be able to lead a moral life. Socrates describes these efforts at gaingin knowledge and thus leaving morally as the means to create value out of life: â€Å"a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought only to consider whether in doing anything he is doing right or wrong – acting the part of a good man or of a bad† (Jowett, 2000, para. 55)The first step for this process is to understand what virtue is and what it is not. What is not moral is considered as evil: an act of evil can then be done by actions against another property causing him loss, against the person by physical harm or by treating him unjustly such as the denial of rights or freedoms.   In Plato’s Gorgias, Socrates states that â€Å"good and evil are not simultaneous, and do not cease simultaneously†, implying that though good and bad contradict each other, they can not exist without the other (Jowett, 1999, lines 361-362).Many of Socrates’ actions may be interpreted as satire on the Athenian society and even his statements during his trial can not be considered as defense was rather a philosophical treatise. When Socrates was asked why he did choose to flee before the trial or after it when his friends tried to liberate him from prison despite what they believed was a mockery of a trial, Socrates replied that since he chose to live in Athens, he must bow to its laws regardless of the trial (Nikolaos, 2005). However, if one already considers the ethical or moral components into the equation, it is then that the question of justice becomes more difficult to evaluate. Thus, Socrates may in fact be making a statement as to the justice of the trial if not to its legality. Considering the components of prosecution, defense, jury and judge alone , one can consider that the trial prescribe to all requirements for the delivery of justice.Kant on SocratesKant’s Moral philosophy is one of the main alternatives to utilitarianism which marginalizes moral humanistic virtues. Kant’s view on morality is essentially deontological which implies a focus on the action to be done regardless of the consequences (â€Å"Kant: The Moral†, 2001). This implies that if a person is doing something that is right, then even if the results of his actions create a negative outcome, then he still did the right thing. There is also a prescriptive quality to Kant’s view: the assumption is that everyone should do what is right and that it should be universally right (Wood, 2004).Thus, for an action to be considered moral, it should be within the capacity of everyone and viewed as a correct action universally (â€Å"Kant's Moral Philosophy†, 2007). Viewing Socrates’ action through Kant’s Moral Philosophy, there are arguments both to support the morality of Socrates actions. The challenge is in deciphering Socrates’ intentions and purpose which can sometime prove difficult since it is basic in and Socratic Method to question something.From Kant’s definition of morals in terms of the action rather than the outcome, Socrates can be considered as moral since his purpose for questioning the state and its leaders is to emphasize the need for the knowledge virtue (â€Å"Kant: The Moral†, 2001). According to Plato, Socrates did not question the institutions of the states but rather the ignorance behind it. Thus, Kant will consider Socrates moral because he in facts teaches other virtue by his philosophical studies. As stated by Socrates in Apology, â€Å"I can give you as proofs of this, not words only, but deeds, which you value more than words,† (Jowett, 2000, para. 59)Another example is Socrates’ lack of defense for himself during his trial. According to Plato’s Apology, the accusations against Socrates were an intimidation scheme gone badly. Rather than acceding to his detractors, Socrates chose not to give up his stands as a testament to his view of the mockery of justice that has become of the Athenian society. Supporting the Kant’s view of universality in the form of the law implemented in Athens,Socrates believed that he should be executed because of the fact that he has been found guilty according to Athenian law as attested by Socrates himself in his statement that to live in Athens, one must bow to its laws regardless. Even his efforts at defensce according to him are not for his sake but rather for the sake of the citizenry: â€Å"I am not going to argue for my own sake, as you may think, but for yours, that you may not sin against the God, or lightly reject his boon by condemning me† (para. 57)Just the same time, it can be argued that Socrates’ actions are immoral based on Kant’s views ( â€Å"Kant: The Moral†, 2001). Socrates questioning the state is indeed against the Athenian law and therefore regardless his intentions for enlightenment, it is considered as sedition. The absolute nature of Kantian moral philosophies leaves no exceptions: commands are imperatives without categories. Though Socrates argued that virtuous characteristics represent absence of virtue is evil, he also stated that â€Å"good and evil are not simultaneous, and do not cease simultaneously† (Jowett, 1999, lines 342-344).Socrates, Kant and MoralityThe main source of conflict between the two philosophies on morality is that Kant’s definition is so absolute and leaves very little space more the resolution of moral dilemmas which in contrast was the focus of Socrates work if not his own life (Wood, 2004). Consider Socrates’ closing statement during his trial:â€Å"For if I tell you that this would be a disobedience to a divine command, and therefore that I cannot ho ld my tongue, you will not believe that I am serious; and if I say again that the greatest good of man is daily to converse about virtue, and all that concerning which you hear me examining myself and others, and that the life which is unexamined is not worth living – that you are still less likely to believe† (Jowett, 2000, para. 63).The strict requirements for rationality then precludes morality for those who are fully rational such as those who are mentally incapacitated or limited because of retardation or any other psychological condition (â€Å"Kant's Moral Philosophy†, 2007). Though moral autonomy does exist in both perspectives, Kant’s moral philosophy leaves less flexibility towards its definition because of its requirement of universality.It should be kept in mind that the setting of the two works is distinctly different. In the case of Socrates, the motivation and the consequences are given as much importance as the act itself. When he was accus ed that he did spoke falsely of the gods, he used as evidence his belief in the spiritual, such as the existence of the soul, and divinities by stating that, â€Å"Can a man believe in spiritual and divine agencies, and not in spirits or demigods?† (Jowett, 2000, para. 49). In the case of Kant, this will not be a valid argument sinceIn Socrates’ discourse, punishment of the act contravenes evil and while in Kant, contravention is from the doing what is right alone. In both instances, what is not moral is considered a reality on man’s life and both definitions require affirmative action against what is not moral. To be able to do so, one’s character and virtue must juxtapose what is considered what is not moral. Therefore restoration of evil done is equated with the punishment that one receives for the act.The fundamental difference in the definition between the two is that Kant’s moral failure is an independent act to a moral right by virtue of the lack of impact of consequences while Socrates’ main model of immorality is based on injustice resulting form the action. Thus the dilemma of immorality in the former is an ethical one and immorality in the latter is presented as a social dilemma. Reflecting on both works, there is a realization that definitions of what is not moral may differ in many ways but all studies that focus on it have a common purpose. In understanding the nature and manner of what is not moral, a person is able to better not according it to it.ReferencesJowett, Benjamin (1999).Gorgias by Plato. Project Guttenberg. Retrieved on April 2, 2007 http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1672?msg=welcome_strangerJowett, Benjamin (2000). Plato’s Apology. Retrieved on April 2, 2007 http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/apology.html=

The Major Profitability Ratios

The major profitability ratios are: 1. 1. 1. 1RETURN ON CAPITAL: Describes the earning capacity of the enterprise and it is measured by the following ratio: Profit before interest and taxation Average operating Assets The Return On Capital ratio measures how well the average operating assets (assets such as debtors, cash, fixed assets, stock) are generating the company s income, and is indicative of the management techniques applied by the company to utilise its assets. A poor income rate of return could indicate that valuable assets are under utilised.As a result of this problem, an enterprise, which shows a negative Return on capital could be under the influence of poor management. The earning capacity of XYZ Limited for 1998 and 1999 |Ratio|2000|1999|1998|Comments| |||||| Return on|||||| Capital|NPBT|100|88|70|| |Av. OA|(286 + 230) 2|(230 + 162) 2|(162 + 144)|Industry ave| ||100 x 100|88 x 100| 2|| ||258|196|70 x 100|| ||38, 76%|44, 9%|153|| ||||45. 7%|| |||||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : XYZ Limited s return on capital declined from 45. 7% in 1998 to 44. 9% in 1999.This decrease is mainly due to the increase in assets, but further investigation is required to analyse the extent of this decrease. The decrease continued further from 44. 9% in 1999 to 38. 76% in 2000. Again this decrease is due to an increase in assets. The question that arises therefor is: â€Å"Is this phenomena as a result of mismanagement of assets, or just because XYZ Limited is starting up and still growing? † Additional investigation would be required to analyse the extent of the decrease. 1. 1. 1. 2NET PROFIT RATIO: The primary objective of an enterprise is to make a profit.Profit is earned from sales and serves as an important measure of return of capital. The Net Profit percentage can be measured by the following ratio: Net Profit Sales This Net Profit Ratio measures the overall effectiveness of the enterprise s operations, before interest, tax and other non-â€Å"operati ng† items. The shortfall of this ratio in terms of its effectiveness is perhaps the fact that its usefulness is limited to comparisons with other companies. In addition, there is no guideline as to what the ideal absolute value should be. Changes to the Net Profit % can be influenced by one of two components, viz. – Gross Profit Percentage Operating Expenditure In addition, the percentage of sales consumed by operating expenses (i. e. Gross Profit % – Net Profit %) is often indicative of management efficiency in controlling operating costs. Disciplined management techniques, for example, by cutting costs can lead to two consequences, viz. : – A more profitable enterprise An efficiently operating enterprise The Net Profit % of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Net Profit % Margin|2000|1999|1998| Net Operating Income|100|88|70| Net Sales|900|800|700| |11. 11%|11. 00%|10. 00%| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N :The Net Profit Percentage Margin increased steadily in proportion to the Gross Profit percentage during the horizon of 1998 to 1999 (10% to 11%). This improvement in the enterprise s return on capital indicates that a proportionately greater profit was earned from sales in 1999 that in 1998. The crux of the matter, however, is not yet known whether this improvement is as a result of larger Gross Profit or lower expenses. Further analysis would be required. During the period of 1999 to 2000 the Net Profit Percentage Margin increased by a further 0. 11% (11% in 1999 to 11,11% in 2000).Again this improvement can be ascribe to an improvement in the enterprise s return on capital. And as noted in the previous horizon, it cannot be determined whether this improvement is as a result of larger Gross Profit or lower expenses. Further analysis would be required. 1. 1. 1. 3Gross Profit % Margin Gross Profit % is an indication of the return of the enterprise s core business. The Gross Profit percentage can be measured by the following r atio: Gross Profit Sales The Gross Profit percentage ratio may be difficult to calculate, as many companies do not disclose their Gross Profit figures.This ratio measures the overall profit margin the enterprise is making on the goods it sells. Perhaps a weakness of this ratio is that by disclosing this type of information a company could potentially expose itself to its competitors. Changes in the Gross Profit % can be influenced by the following factors: Change in markup – changes in the selling prices of goods, or possibly trade discounts will have a direct impact on the GP margin. Sales Mix – an enterprise may deal with numerous different products, which have different mark-ups, and as a result, the sales mix will have an influence on Gross Profit % margin.A changing sales mix should be ascertainable from the segment report (if prepared) by the enterprise. Inventory theft – the theft of inventories would cause unequal quantities of inventories to be reflec ted as sales and cost of sales, and will definitely have a negative impact of the GP margin. The Gross Profit % of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Gross Profit Margin|2000|1999|1998| Gross Profit X 100%|300|256|210| Sales|900|800|700| |33. 33%|32. 00%|30. 00%| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : During the period 1998 to 1999, XYZ Limited s Gross Profit percentage margin increased from 30. 3% in 1998 to 32. 9% in 1999.Changes in Gross Profit from one period to the next may be influenced by an increase in sales volume, but further analysis would be required. During the period 1999 to 2000, XYZ Limited s Gross Profit percentage margin increased by 1,1% (from 32. 0% in 1999 to 33. 3% in 1999). A closer look into the enterprise would be required to analyse the following factors: – Higher selling prices Lower purchasing prices Incorrect inventory counts Stricter prevention or loss control policies For obvious reasons, this type of analysis is only possible if the unit selli ng price and the costs are known. 1. 1. 1. Return on Equity (ROE) Return on Equity is measured by the following ratio: Net Profit After Tax Total Equity Return On Equity (ROE) is an indication of good or bad the shareholders prospered during the year. The objective of any enterprise must be to yield sufficient returns in line with the risks taken on by the owner. In addition, the Return on Equity ratio also gives the investor an idea of the sort of return of investment he/she is achieving. This can be compared with returns on alternative investment opportunities such as savings accounts, gilts, and fixed properties. The ROE of XYZ Limited is as follows: –Return on Equity200019991998 Net Profit After Tax|56|48|33| Total equity|186|154|102| |30. 11%|31. 17%|32. 35%| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : During 1998 the Return on Equity ratio, as calculated above, indicated that for every rand in equity XYZ Limited generated 32. 35 cents in profit. Also noticeable is that during 19 99 and 2000 this profit was measured as 31,17 and 30. 11 respectively. Apart from the fact that there was a mediocre decline in percentage over the three-year period, nothing signifies that the company is undergoing stress in terms of the ROE figures. Thus no further analysis would be required. . 1. 1. 5Earnings Per Share Describes the earning per share of the entity and it is measured by the following ratio: Earnings Per Share Total Equity Earnings Per Share indicates the value of the company s share as perceived by the market. The higher increase in value, the higher the favourable perception of the enterprise. The EPS of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Earnings Per Share|2000|1999|1998| Net Profit After Tax|56|48|33| Number of Shares Issued|10|10|8| |R5. 60|R4. 80|R4. 13| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : XYZ Limited s earnings per share favourably increased over the three horizons from R4. 3 (1998), to R4. 80 (1999), to R5. 60 (2000). This steady increase in share value ove r the three-year period is indicative of the higher favourable perception of XYZ Limited s 1. 1. 1. 6P/E Ratio Describes Price/Earnings per share capacity of the entity and it is measured by the following ratio: Price Earnings Per Share Price/Earnings Per Share indicates the internal growth of an enterprise. The P/E ratio also signifies how much investors are willing to pay per rand of current earnings. Furthermore, an increase in P/E usually indicates that an enterprise shows potential for future growth.The P/E Ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – P/E ratio|2000|1999|1998| Price per Share|28|20|16| Earnings Per Share|6|5|4| |5. 00|4. 17|3. 90| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : The Price/Earnings per share for XYZ Limited steadily increased over the horizons of 1998 (3. 90) to 1999 (4. 17); an increase of 0. 27. This increase is healthy for the company as it reflects it as a growing capability. However, since XYZ Limited is in its start-up phase this increase is understandable. The Price/Earnings per share for XYZ Limited, again, steadily increased over the horizons of 1999 (4. 17) to 2000 (5. 00); an increase of 0. 3. What is interesting to note is that this internal growth suggests that perhaps it is one of the contributory factors, which influenced the negative trend in the return of capital and since the company is relative new, growth is inevitable. 1. 1. 2 Liquidity Ratios Liquidity ratios, in essence, measure the ability of the enterprise to pay its bills on time. In other words, the more liquid an enterprise possesses, the more able it would be in terms of paying its bills. In addition, Liquidity ratios also measure the management of a firm s ability to employ working capital. The major liquidity ratios are: Current Ratio Acid-test Ratio Stock Turnover days Creditors payment ratio 1. 1. 2. 1Current Ratio The Current ratio measures the amount of times the company s assets cover its liabilities. Current liabilities consist of creditors who must be paid in cash in the short term. Current assets mainly consist of stock, debtors, and cash. The calculation of the current ratio is as follows: Current Assets Current Liabilities There is no generic rule of thumb about what the figure should be, but generally speaking, an acceptable ratio usually computes between 1 and 2, even though this may vary from industry to industry.The significant thing about the current ratio is that it is used to make comparisons, rather than an absolute measure of liquidity. As a short-term ratio, it makes sense, due to the fact the company s liquidity in the short term depends upon whether it has enough current assets to pay its current liabilities. Another important aspect of the Current Ratio is that it is an important tool for creditors and bank managers (in the case of overdrafts) as signifies that the company can make the commitment to its lenders. The current ratio could also be used in terms of risk management in the event of a negative trend in t his ratio.For example, if the rate at which the company s assets are converted into cash is slower than that of the repayment of the company s creditors, there would be liquidity problems in that enterprise. The Current ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Current Ratio|2000|1999|1998| Current Assets|186|110|22| Current Liabilities|70|36|20| |2. 66 : 1. 0|3. 06:1. 0|1. 10:1. 0| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : The Current ratio for XYZ Limited during the period 1998 to 1999 increased considerably from 1. 10:1. 0 to 3. 06:1. 0. The poor acid-test ratio in 1998 indicated that the company had experienced problems.This is obviously not the case due to the fact that the enterprise was just starting up. Another observation of this particular horizon is that it signifies that in 1999 the company expanded (grew) substantially since its inception – which contributed to the enormity of the gap. During the period of 1999 to 2000 the current ratio of XYZ Limited expectedly â₠¬Å"levelled-out† from (3. 06: 1. 0) to (2. 66:1. 0); and even though it is still above the industry norm (2:1). Even though this horizon indicates that XYZ Limited has the capabilities of servicing long-term debt and current liabilities, it must still be viewed with caution. 1. 1. 2. Acid Test Ratio The Acid-Test ratio (or sometimes referred to as the Quick ratio) is a more severe form of the current ratio where current assets are readily converted to cash are calculated as a proportion of the current liabilities. The calculation of the Acid-test ratio is as follows: Current Assets – Stock Current Liabilities The Acid-test ratio also compares current assets to current liabilities, but removes stock from the assets, since stock is usually the least liquid of all the assets and the most difficult to convert into cash. This ratio, in fact, gives us a more accurate assessment of the liquidity of the enterprise.A quick ratio of 1:1 would be considered as the norm , but may v ary from industry to industry. The Quick ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Acid Test Ratio|2000|1999|1998| Current assets – Stock|120|70|7| Current Liabilities|70|36|20| |1. 71:1. 0|1. 94:1. 0|0. 35:1. 0| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : The Current ratio for XYZ Limited during the period 1998 to 1999 increased considerably from 0. 35:1. 0 to 1. 94:1. 0 respectively. The poor acid-test ratio in 1998 is indicative of the fact that the company was in its infancy stage and was probably committed to its lenders.XYZ Limited then somewhat leap-frogged in 1999 to a more favourable position due its debtors recovery. During the period of 1999 to 2000 the quick ratio of XYZ Limited declined marginally from (3. 06: 1. 0) to (2. 66:1. 0) respectively; and even though it is still above the industry norm (1:1). The decrease in XYZ Limited s quick ratio could be ascribed to expansion in operations and growth and even though was still able to meet its short-term commitments. 1. 1. 2. 3Stock turnover days The calculation of the stock turnover days is as follows: Average inventory X 365 Cost of salesThe inventory stock days calculates the sales an enterprise contains in its year-end inventory. The most efficient scenario would be to have no inventory holding, but is impractical, as it would make an enterprise inoperable. It would therefor be considered as a management inventory control policy. The Stock turnover days ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Stock Inventory Turnover Days|2000|1999|1998| Ave inventory X 365|66|40|15| Cost of sales|600|544|490| |40. 15|26. 84|11. 17| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : It is interesting to note that during the period 1998 and 1999 this figure for the stock turnover days seemingly increased by 25. 7 days (from 11. 17 days in 1998 to 26. 84 days in 1999). This increase in the number of days could be as a result of growth or due to stock holding. XYZ Limited showed an increase in the number of days for the horizon 1 999 (26 days) and 2000 (40 days). This negative trend over this period and the previous horizon could be misleading and potentially indicates that stock piling occurs. It is difficult to assess this condition as the company could be in the process of delivering a huge order or has over stocked in anticipation of sales projection. 1. 1. 2. 4Creditors PaymentsThe calculation of the creditors payments is as follows: Average Creditors X 365 Cost of sales The creditors payments days indicates the period an enterprise uses to pay it s trade collectors. This can potentially give rise to cash discounts by suppliers. The Creditors Payments ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Stock Inventory Turnover Days|2000|1999|1998| Ave Creditor X 365|40|26|20| Cost of sales|600|544|490| |24 days|17days|14days| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : XYZ Limited showed an increase in the number of days for the horizon 1998 (14 days) and 1999 (17 days). And again during 2000 (24 days).This, however, does n ot signify anything as the company is still able to pay its suppliers in less that 30 days, which suggests an efficient payment process. 1. 1. 3 Leverage Ratios Leverage (Gearing) ratios, in essence, gives the analyst an indication of the sort of debt an enterprise has and how the operations is financed. All leverage ratios will contain long-term debts and short-term debts. This is usually compared with the total assets of the company. Financial institutions and banks are usually keen to know the company s leverage as they are keen to find out how much an enterprise has borrowed and what it can afford to borrow.The major leverage ratios are: 1. 1. 3. 1Debt Ratio The debt ratio is an indicator of all the debt that the company has , to its total assets. The calculation of the debt ratio is as follows: Total liabilities Total assets Due to the accounting equation, it can be generally assumed that the company has financed its assets by the above proportion of â€Å"non-owner† fun ds. â€Å"Owner funds† refers to share capital and retained earnings. Lenders generally stipulate that this ratio should not exceed a certain percentage because it is usually more risky to lend to a company who lacks owners funds (i. . share capital + retained earnings) as apposed to its â€Å"non-owners† funds. Again, the desirable value of this ratio is difficult to evaluate and its usefulness lies in how it compares to the same ratio in other similar companies. The debt ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Debt ratio|2000|1999|1998| Total liabilities|100|76|60| Total assets|286|230|162| |34. 97%|33. 04%|37. 04%| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : The debt ratio for XYZ Limited during the period 1998 to 1999 decreased marginally from 37. 04% to 33. 04%. this was mainly due to an increase in assets.Due to this effect on leverage, the debt equity ratio caused the return on shareholder s equity to remain fairly constant even though an increase in return on capit al was encountered. During the period of 1999 to 2000 the debt ratio of XYZ Limited increased marginally, suggesting that the company did not have the same profitability as the previous horizon. 1. 1. 3. 2Long-term Debt Ratio The long-term debt ratio is an indicator of only the long-term debt that the company has, to its total assets. The calculation of the long-term debt ratio is as follows: Long-term Debt Total assetsLong term debt is fairly static. Generally lenders do not like to give long-term loans to finance short-term (current assets). They prefer to lend on a long-term basis for items such as fixed assets. The ratio therefor indicates what proportion of the assets has been financed by long-term debt. The debt ratio of XYZ Limited is as follows: – Long-term debt ratio|2000|1999|1998| Long-term debt|30|40|40| Total assets|286|230|162| |10. 49%|17. 39%|24. 69%| |||| I N T E R P R E T A T I O N : The debt ratio for XYZ Limited during the period 1998 to 1999 decreased mar ginally from 24. 9% to 17. 39%. This was mainly due to an increase in total assets. Due to this effect on leverage, the debt equity ratio caused the return on shareholder s equity to remain fairly constant even though an increase in return on capital was encountered. During the period of 1999 to 2000 the debt ratio of XYZ Limited increased significantly mainly due to an increase in total assets and a decrease in long-term debt. What is noticeable in this ratio is that XYZ Limited is not particularly bad for the company. In fact, the company is seemingly doing very well.

The Old Man And Sea Essays - English-language Films, Free Essays

The Old Man And Sea Essays - English-language Films, Free Essays The Old Man And Sea Manzanares, March 21th of 1999. The Old Man And The Sea What is the title of the story? A= The Old Man and the Sea. Who is the main character? A= . Santiago (The Old Man) is the main character of The Old Man and the Sea. His occupation is a fisherman. Unlike the rest of the fishing community, Santiago continues to fish using traditional methods. These methods, however, do not allow Santiago to catch many fish. Thus, he is forced to live a semi-impoverished life Who is the secondary character? A= Manolin (the young boy) is a young man and good friend of Santiago. Santiago has spent several years teaching and instructing Manolin in the traditional methods of fishing. Where and when the story takes place? A= In Cuba and out in the Gulf Stream, in the 50. What is the climax of the story? A= During the last few moments of the Marlin's life. Santiago battles furiously with the huge fish as it thrashes about in the water. The danger to Santiago is immense because the size of the marlin is much greater than the Santiago's boat. Did you like the story? Why? A= Yes because is about the hard existence of the man fighting against his destiny, conditioned by the social and cultural structures that mark his life. Do a summary of the story A= The story is about Santiago a Cuban fisherman who goes through many conflicts with nature and himself. He experiences poor luck in the latter part of his life which leaves him poor and destitute, relying on a boy to feed him and to be his only true friend. In spite of his skill as a fisherman, only his diligent perseverance ended his eighty-five day drought of fish. In this time of need, Santiago's pride prevailed over his hunger and need of supplies. While fishing in solitude, Santiago's eighty-five day ordeal ended with the snaring of a marlin. During the contest between himself and the fish, Santiago had to endure many physical and emotional conflicts. Santiago's physical conflicts include his hunger, fatigue, and the cramping of his hand. His body required nutrition and became tired and thirsty, inflicting great pain and demanding his attention. The obtaining of nourishment was a task which required all his skills and physical strength while at the same time holding a line with a marlin larger than any he had ever seen. When Santiago's hand cramped and refused to be of any use to him, he felt betrayed by his body and had to coax his hand with kind words, food, and time out of paralysis to the point where it could again assist in the capture and killing of the marlin. Santiago struggled with his emotions throughout the ordeal as well. He continually felt unworthy of putting such a grand fish to death and understood he was better than the fish only because he could think. Santiago felt sorry for having to destroy such a beautiful creature, and when pulling the fish alongside the boat, being torn apart by sharks, he felt as though the fish had disrespectfully been treated and that is was a disgrace for it to be destroyed by that means. Santiago struggles with many conflicts in this novel and the climax takes place just as he is using his last efforts and tools to disperse the sharks and protect the marlin. In his failure his struggles end and he slumps into his boat in lamentation. His conflicts are resolved and he returns to port with only a carcass, receiving no monetary profit, but gaining the respect of his colleagues. Bibliography Daniel Augusto Garca Porras.